Mothers are usually the primary caregivers and if the mother is incarcerated the risk of trauma is greater than if a father is incarcerated. The primary challenge researchers face with this severely understudied population is that it is difficult to decipher the effects of parental incarceration from the effects of other factors that may have existed long before the incarceration. Replication of studies is needed to test how strongly parental incarceration and adverse child outcomes are associated. Studies should be conducted using prospective longitudinal designs, with representative samples, control group, and reliable and valid measures of key constructs. Childhood outcomes such as gang membership, physical illness, and mortality can be studied more using this format. Furthermore, there is a great need for better research on some of the mechanisms linking parental incarceration and child outcomes. Some qualitative research has many possible pathways, but systematic testing of these mechanisms is still lacking. Longitudinal research should be used to measure and hypothesize child adjustment before, during, and after parenting